Time Period 3

 Agricultural Revolution - amplified food production, which exponentially increased the population of Europe and their health. 

• Rise of urbanization and mechanized production caused mass migration to urban areas, creating new societal class interactions with the rise of proletariats and the bourgeoisie.

Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile, iron, and steel production. 

Industrialized capitalism emerged. 

Why Great Britain was the first to industrialize:

Political:

-Strong navy

-Successful wars

-Gained colonies

-Constitutional monarchies 

-Enclosure movement

Economic:

-Resources

-Increased food supply

-Overseas trade

-Cottage industry

-More investors/capital than most euro countries 

Social:

-Restricted use of village common

-More movement to urban areas

-New transportation systems

Intellectual:

-Adam Smith: free trade and free market

-John Locke: natural rights and protection of private property

-More embracement of enlightenment ideals 

Great Britain was the first to industrialize

Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations which prompted capitalism and a free market economy.

Investors investing in new tech and methods of production economy driven by supply and demand 

Surplus of labor looking for work in urban areas due to: 

• Agricultural Revolution exponentially ↑ population
• Enclosure Acts kicked peasants off farms and left without occupation

Britain had an abundance of natural resources such as coal, iron, wood which were critical sources for power and building 

Britain had access to water so the building of canals and railroads to ship goods was supported/invested in by the government. And was able to build many factories and ship great amounts of goods 

Britain mechanized textile production with inventions of the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, water frame, power loom. Also started to export large quantities of textiles.

Gov/Economic Support: 

• Parliament levied heavy taxes on citizens and collected capital
• British gov. Was stable 
• Commercial profits grew from textile industry
• Britain had an effective central bank and flexible credit policies
• Entrepreneurs were eager to invest, and the gov placed very few restrictions on private enterprise 
• Easier for people to take out a loan and invest in some time of new machinery and technology 

Spread to rest of Europe:

• Growth of railroads sparked industrial development because they wanted to link their resources to their factories and catch up to Great Britain

Limitations: 

A combination of factors including geography, lack of resources, the dominance of traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government sponsorship accounted for eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial development. 

Guild restrictions still applied in some areas. Better selling conditions, people didn’t want to give it up

• Continental entrepreneurs were less likely to take risks
• Lacked technical knowledge 
• the continued existence of primitive farming practices and land-owning practices led to famine, debt, and fertile land shortages.

Russia: 

Serfdom still existed, so serfs were bound to the land and performed labor services. There was no movement to urban areas and landlords didn’t have incentives to invest in new technology because they had serfs to work their land. Still had primitive agricultural practices

Prussia had huge amounts of coal and iron which promoted industrial development 

• Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under government sponsorship.

Western Europe:

• Mostly industrialized 
• Good geography
• Government support
• Much more money
• Power was held by factory owners

Eastern Europe:

• Not industrialized
• Bad geography
• Lack of government support
• Serfdom
• Power was held by landowners

 In Western and Northern Europe, industrialization led to the development of self-conscious classes because of the very clear division of labor between who did what kind of work

Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families. 

• Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the cult of domesticity, with distinct gender roles for men and women 
• The men worked and the women stayed home and raised the children 
• In rural farms, usually the whole family worked on the farm anyways so this same family economy just came with them as they moved to the cities
• However the urban arrangement of family work was different because in the factory setting, family members worked in different places

By the end of the century, higher wages, laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet, and increased access to birth control affected the quality of life for the working class.

• England’s Factory Act of 1833 - mandated that children under 9 years old couldn't legally work in a factory. And those of 9-13 years old could work 9 hours a day. Children must also have 2 hours of schooling a day.
  • Act wasn't very effective because families falsified documents, but it did have the effect of making people aware that children ought to be protected from the harsh life of the factory 
• Ten Hours Act - England, limited working hours to 10 hours a day for children 13-18 years old and banned anyone under 13 from working at all
• With people working less, a new leisure culture grew
  • Urban parks - built for leisure strolls/ bike rides
  • Theaters
  • Spectator sports - boxing, horse riding, and rugby
• People began marrying for love

Maintaining political order:

• Congress of Vienna - held to deal with the political mess Napoleon left in Europe and other issues like what to do with Poland
• Led by Metternich who sought to restore the old political order of Europe
• Comprised of the Great Powers of Europe (Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany)
• Lead to almost 100 years of peace

Concert of Europe - developed by Metternich, sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.

• Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia formed the Quadruple Alliance to put down any future revolutions through use of military force.
• Metternich used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions.
• Conservatives re-established control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.
• The revolutions of 1848, triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, challenged conservative politicians and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe.

Rise of Conservatism:

• Supported traditional political and religious authority
• Organized states of Europe to preserve balance of power
• Suppressed nationalism and liberalism 
• Important for monarchs to re-establish control over Europe and more easily suppress any movements for change. Conservatism also aimed to increase again the legitimacy of religious authorities.

Klemens Von Metternich thought only powerful central governments could bring order to Europe 

Edmund Burke argued authority and hierarchy were part of the natural order of the universe,  and that people weren't capable of governing themselves so society should be ordered under a small group of elites 

Joseph de Maistre thought true political authority must be rooted in religious and moral principles. Argued for return to monarchy

Challenges to political order: 

• 1820: Sicily and Naples revolted and obtained a constitutional monarchy 
• Spain and Portugal wanted to end the absolute monarchy 
• 1825: An uprising in Russia, that was protesting the monarch, is crushed
• 1830: Liberals declared Belgian independence  

Revolutionaries of the first half of the 19th century attempted to destroy the status quo

• War of Greek Independence was fought by Greek nationalists with the help of Britain, France, and Russia, to guarantee the Independence of Greece from the conservative Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Constantinople settled the dispute and it recognized the independence of the Greek state.
• Decembrist Revolt in Russia, on December 26th, 1825, some civilians attempted to overthrow the authoritarian government of Tsar Nicholas I and attempted to establish a constitutional monarchy. They failed in their mission, but it was an important movement for the later Revolution of 1917.
• Polish rebellion - The Russian government began to impose stricter rules to abolish polish culture and freedom in the portion of Poland owned by Russia, which led to the November uprisings. These Poles joined forces to overthrow Russia, however their attempts were ultimately unsuccessful.
• July Revolution in France - Conservative monarch Charles X stripped the middle class of voting rights and tried to censor the press. In response, middle class liberals and the working class staged an insurrection causing Charles X to abdicate the throne. He was replaced by king Louis-Phillipe

The revolutions of 1848 were triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, they challenged conservative politicians and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe

• Caused by discontent with governments, the rise of liberalism, and nationalism created by Napoleon

Revolutions of 1848 began in France: 

• With Louis-Phillipe maintaining the conservative status quo, many people began demanding a more liberal government. This plus a massive bread shortage lead the people of France to riot, causing Louis-Phillipe to abdicate the throne leading to the provisional government restoring the French Republic (Second Republic) and enacting liberal provisions demanded by the people 
• The working class became concerned the middle class was ignoring their demands for national workshops across the country
• The national assembly voted for Louis-Napoleon to be the president of France. He then declared himself Emperor Napoleon III and re-established an authoritarian government in France. 

Inspired by the 1848 uprising in France, revolutionaries in Prussia and other German states began to demand more liberal reforms as well, but the main focus was the unification of German states. 

• The king of Prussia, Frederick William IV used force to crush the revolution but agreed to make some liberal reforms
• German states drafted a new constitution, but it was rejected by Frederick

Austria experienced a rebellion in 1848 due to a struggle to maintain control of its multi-ethnic empire, which included Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, and Serbs, who all wanted to rule themselves fueled by nationalism   

• These various groups revolted, but with Russian help, Austria was able to defeat them and installed a conservative monarchy

After the Crimean war, Alexander II in Russia enacted his liberal Great Reforms which:

• Emancipated the serfs of Russia
• Created independent courts which ensured equality under the law for all Russians
• Modernized Russia’s military through industrialization 

Russians wanted a more liberal government which led them to the Revolution of 1905, resulting in the October Manifesto which granted:

• Universal suffrage for all men
• Citizenship to all Russians
• Freedom of speech 
• Representative body called the Duma

Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest, but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance 

Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership. Some argued that such rights should be extended to women

Liberalism: 

• An outgrowth of the enlightenment and the rise of the middle class during the industrial revolution
• Believed people should be as free from government interference as possible
• Rights were important, including freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, equality before the law, and freedom from arbitrary arrest

Republicanism: 

• Aimed to give industrial middle class a greater say in what government policy was
• Believed in popular elections, as well as checks and balances within governments
• The male middle class wanted to limit political participation to men that possessed a certain amount of property
  • This would give the middle class equal power with the traditional landed aristocracy that previously dominated Europe

Liberals in Europe in the mid- 19th century sought more equal rights for middle class men, and often framed their arguments in the Enlightenment ideals of universal equality  

Republicans sought governmental systems that were more representative and responsive to the general public

Radical Approaches to Ideological Change:

• Socialists called for the redistribution  of society’s resources and wealth. Evolved from a utopian to a Marxist scientific critique of capitalism
• Marx’s scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism and a deterministic analysis of society and historical evolution
  • Marx believed that history was characterized by class struggle by which the ruling class used government power to oppress the workers
  • He envisioned a proletarian revolution, which would overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a classless society characterized by social equality and a common effort to work for the good of everyone 
• Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation
  • Believed people were generally good, but the society around them and governments that ruled over them made people do bad things
  • Popular in less industrialized countries
  • Anarchism called for the abolition of all existing government systems and social institutions 
  • Later began advocating violent methods for achieving their goals such as assassinating state leaders
    • Anarchists killed Russian Tsar Alexander II, American President William McKinley, and Italian King Umberto I

Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform

• People wanting societal reform to fight the negative effects of industrialization used these parties to advocate for change inside the government
  • In Britain, the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884 increasingly democratized the country’s political system.
  • Conservatives and liberals fought for the people’s vote
  • In France, the Third Republic was established under a new constitution that provided universal male suffrage. Conservatives and socialists were the main parties

Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties 

• Labor unions fought for better wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions 
• As the vote extended to working-class Europeans, the larger social and political demands of union were incorporated into political party platforms
  • In Germany, the desires of workers led to the creation of the Social Democratic Party, which moved away from Marx’s idea of revolution and instead embraced an evolutionary process that would achieve gradual change through political participation

Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions

• Feminists started the equality movement by focusing on divorce and property rights but were largely unsuccessful in the mid 19th century
• The feminist movement focused on political equality, specifically voting rights
  • Emmeline Pankhurts and her daughters used media and unusual public displays to bring attention to women's suffrage in Britain
  • Suffragettes pushed for equality by often violent and controversial means
• Not until after WWI that women's suffrage was achieved in most of Europe 

Various non governmental reform movements, many of them religious, assisted the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery

• The Industrial Revolution caused mass urbanization and the resulting living conditions were insufficient for the urban poor
• Reformers, like Octavia Hill, started private enterprises to construct clean and affordable housing for working families 
• Reformers attempted to reform working-class values and habits to bring them more in line with middle-class sensibilities
• Reformers also turned their attention to christian teaching and temperance as an effort to change the lives of the poorest urban dwellers

Liberal ideas shifted social policies in response to the challenges of industrialization

Challenges of industrialization: 

• Rapid movement to cities from rural areas by people looking for jobs
• Poor sanitation, crowded living conditions, and terrible public health
• Lack of clean water, adequate sewage, and rampant disease
• High levels of unemployment and crime
• Lack of affordable housing and education
• Unsupervised children in the streets

Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. The reforms were enacted by governments motivated by public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations

The industrial revolution spread from Britain to the rest of Europe, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry

Britain established its industrial dominance thought he mechanization of textile production iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates

Following Britain, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship

• Western Europe industrialized more successfully than eastern Europe, which shifted the balance of power to the western countries

The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location

• Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe
• Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to social distortions
• Overtime, the industrial revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families

Political revolutions and the complications resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses

• Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions