Unit 5

 Global markets were opened and expanded, with growth of the Atlantic economy, as well as expansion into India and the West Indies.

Britain became the most major European power, overtaking France. 

• The Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution were significant factors in the growth of Britain’s power in Europe.

The French Revolution challenged a lot of the European systems, leading to the Haitian Revolution and to questions being raised about the status of women in society

• Napoleon used the chaos of the French Revolution to rise to power in France, which would eventually lead to the Congress of Vienna being enacted to restore order to Europe.
• Nationalism also grew, in part due to the Revolution.

The art styles of romanticism and methodism grow as a reaction to the Enlightenment.

• Romanticism was represented by a departure from the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment ideas. It emphasized emotion and imagination over reason and logic.

 Growth of the Atlantic Economy came out of the Columbian Exchange. The Atlantic Economy would lead to commercial rivalries. As countries started sending out ships to the Atlantic there was a growth of maritime competition, as well as a rise in piracy.

• Many countries sponsored these pirates to help disrupt their rival countries' economies.
• There is a competition for control of the Atlantic, through conflicts like the War of Spanish Succession and the Seven Years’ War.

War of Spanish Succession: Peace of Utrecht gave Britain more control of the Atlantic, and Spain had to give up their West Indies slave trade.

Seven Years War: Treaty of Paris allowed France to keep most of its colonies in the Caribbean.

In Asia, rivalries also grew. There was a growth of Dutch power in Asia during the early 1600s. The Dutch East India Company gained control of Indonesia from Portugal, giving the Dutch much more power in the world of trade with Asia.

In India the Mughals granted trade privileges to the English East India Company. The Battle of Plassey ended with the British taking control of the Bengal province, giving them even more power in the region.

The Treaty of Paris, at the end of the Seven Years’ War, saw France give up all claims to India to Britain.

The Seven Years’ War was fought over multiple continents. It started in Europe with the War of Austrian Succession. During this time, England joined Prussia, and France joined Austria. 

France and Britain fought over access to trade with the Mughal in India, over the Ohio River Valley during the French and Indian War in North America, and over control of the sugar trade for colonial economic power in the Caribbean.

The Treaty of Paris:

• France ceded Canada and all territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain
• France ceded Louisiana to Spain
• France gave up holdings in India to Britain.
• Allows Britain to have economic peace and having political influence all across the world.

Causes:

Louis XIV’s absolutist rule in France ignored many long underlying tensions that existed during this time.

• The Seven Years’ War and the American revolution created financial problems, because they drove France into deep debt, and weakened the government.
• Parlements pushed back against Louis XV when he tried to raise taxes to afford the war efforts.
• The Glorious and American Revolutions were seen as examples of constitutional governments working better than absolutist governments. 

The Third Estate was very underrepresented in Estates-General. Feudal hierarchies protected the birthright of the nobility, also leading to the lower classes having less rights than those of higher classes.

Louis XVI was not a strong enough leader to make the decisions that were in the best interests of France.

Marie Antoinette spent money very lavishly, which challenged the priorities of the monarchies.

The natural rights of liberty, equality, and fraternity that came from the Enlightenment represented what the people from France wanted

• Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws  talks about how for there to be balance in a government, power needs to check power.
• In Rousseau’s The Social Contract the idea is that a government that is based on agreements of people giving up their rights for protections or other rights, but if a king is not keeping up his side, then it gives people the right to revolt. 

The king was unable to pay the heavy debt that he had. The taxes fell on the Third Estate.

Food shortages led to protests from the lower classes.

Events:

The revolution started when, in 1788, Louis had to call the Estates-General to pay the debts he had come upon.

The National Assembly was created during the Tennis Court Oath, after the Third Estate was locked out of the meeting houses at Versailles because of their demands and complaints.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen guaranteed the people of the National Assembly their natural rights, like security and liberty.

The constitution was enacted in 1791, establishing a constitutional monarchy, taking away much of Louis’ power.

Bastille was stormed when the people of Paris demanded to show their support of the revolution movement. Eventually beheading the mayor.

• Starts the Great Fear, and it grows as the Revolution spreads across France.
• March of Versailles

Women of Paris were heavily involved in the bread riots. Women march on Versailles because they believe that it is the King’s duty to feed his subjects.

As the revolution grew in France the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity were thought they should exist outside of France.

Consequences:

After the Republic was formed in 1793, Louis XVI was executed because they no longer needed a king.

• Immediate opposition due to the vote being so close.
• Some started to revolt against the revolution.
• Economic situation did not change much.

The Reign of Terror was a response to the issues of the opposition. The National Convention suspended the constitution and put a tribunal into place to reduce chaos. Led by Maximilien Robespierre. His goal was to preserve the revolution at all costs, so he put restrictions into place:

• Travel restrictions were put into place
• Censorship of people talking out against the revolution

The guillotine was extensively used, and became a defining symbol of the French Revolution.

After the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was put in place, the Counter Revolution began. The Counter Revolution pushed back against the French internally as they started to make changes in the Church.  

The war of the First Coalition began, it was a war fought between the major powers of Europe and France, as they are pushing back against the revolution because they don't want the idea of taking away power from the monarchy to spread outside of France.

The French Revolution ended as Napoleon declared himself First Consul.

The French Revolution also spread across the Atlantic to Haiti:

• Within years of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen being enacted in France, revolts by enslaved people in Haiti began.
• Around the time that the French Republic was established, France and Spain were at war over who controlled Haiti. The enslaved Haitians sided with Spain because they wanted freedom from slavery.
• After slavery was abolished in the colonies by the Convention, Toussaint L’Ouverture joined the side of the French, and reorganized the slave armies to fight on the side of France
• The Directory was having second-thoughts about abolishing slavery, because of the economic losses, so L’Ouverture wrote a letter to the Directory in hopes to persuade them not to re-enact slavery
• In 1801, Haiti issued a constitution, declaring all men free and equal.
• Napoleon restored slavery in the colonies, and subsequently invaded Haiti. The former slave forces fought Napoleon's army. They were successful and in 1804, Haiti became completely independent from France.

Napoleon joined the army in 1785. He had a series of great victories, he became very well known and popular for that fact, and rose through the ranks of the French army.

Napoleon and other co-conspirators decided that they would overthrow the Directory through a coup.

• He was named first consul for life and a new Constitution was approved.
• He heavily rewarded merit and talent, but also would give close friends, people that were loyal to him, or associates that married into his family with high positions
• He expanded education
• He censored the press, created a spy network and secret police, and eliminated direct elections for deputies to stay in power.
• Napoleon negotiated with the Pope during the Concordat of 1801, which made Catholicism the official religion of France, but the state would still remain in control of that Church 
• The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code):
  • Provided equality of all citizens under the law and freedom of religion
  • Abolished serfdom and feudalism
  • Protected private property
  • Some rights given to women during the Revolution were taken away, causing women to be dependent on their fathers or husbands, also made divorce more difficult for women.
• In 1804, Napoleon was crowned Emperor.

Napoleon dominated much of Europe by 1812. He was extremely popular with his troops, and he mastered negotiation and military strategy.

He created citizen armies, who moved quickly, traveled large distances, and lived off the land.

Napoleon viewed himself as a liberator, but his actions sparked nationalism within the areas he annexed or tried to conquer

He expected his allies and dependent states to support his Continental System, which was a blockade designed to destroy British trade

Examples of nationalistic responses brought by Napoleon.

• Napoleon wanted to move his troops through Spain to reach Portugal, thinking Spain would fall quickly. He forced the King of Spain to abdicate in 1808, appointing his brother, Joseph, to the throne. The Spanish revolted against these changes brought by France, eventually resorting to guerilla warfare, pinning down Napoleon’s troops. 
• Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, and pressed towards Moscow. When Napoleonic troops entered, Czar Alexander I ordered a scorched-earth policy, burning the land and supplies that the French soldiers could use. This was disastrous for Napoleon, and would lead to his retreat. 
• Napoleon reorganized the German states, but many Germans resented French rule. In October of 1813, Napoleon saw one of his most significant losses, as he was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig.

The Congress of Vienna was a response to Napoleonic rule by multiple nations coming together thinking about what to do with Europe. Major goal was to maintain the balance of power.

• Balance of Power: No nation should be too strong and, therefore, power should be distributed more evenly. This was the goal of nations, following the Napoleonic Wars, to prevent another large-scale war.

After the war ended:

• France was returned to its borders (1789)
• Russia obtained Finland and Poland
• Prussia gained territory in Saxony and land on the Rhine
• The German states were joined in a German confederation
• Austria claimed the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia
• England received some colonies and maintained effective control of the seas
• The Kingdom of Netherlands combined the Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands
• The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia claimed Genoa, Nice, and part of Savoy
• The Papel States were returned to the Pope
• No states were so big that they would upset the balance of power again.
• France maintained a small army and paid a modest indemnity to Coalition countries.
• The Bourbon king was restored to the throne (Louis XVIII)
• Legitimate monarchs were restored in other nations such as Spain
• The Holy Alliance, of Austria, Prussia, and Russa, was formed, aimed to repress liberals and revolutionaries.
• The Carlsbad Decrees mandated the German states to outlaw liberal newspapers and political organizations and to monitor universities. A committee of spies and informants was established to monitor activity

 Jean Rousseau - The Social Contract

• Wrote near the end of the Enlightenment, some of his ideals would then start to spark concepts that Romanticism is rooted in.
• He has the idea that all people are born free, but society corrupts them, and he asks how humanity can be moral and free.
• He also states that people rely too much on reason and too little on emotion.

John Wesley:

• Described a deep mystical experience, that was rooted in emotion, in his journal.
• He thought that people still need to have spiritual experiences.
• He started a movement known as Methodism.

Methodism and Pietism saw a revival especially among people of the lower class.

These movements were seen as a departure from the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment focused on:

• Applied science and reason
• Emphasized progress
• Nature being a machine
• Strive to discover truth
• Valuing public life

Romanticism focused on:

• Emotion and imagination
• Glorified nature
• Individualism
• Embrace of mysticism and religion
• Support of nationalism and violent change

Romantic thought was not an exact opposite of Enlightenment thought, but it was a reaction.

 The French Revolution fundamentally challenged the existing European political and social order.

• Revolutionary ideals like liberty, fraternity, and equality inspired some, especially the Haitians, who gained independence in the Haitian Revolution 
• Though, some did criticize the movement. Edmund Burke was a critic of the French Revolution. He believed that the revolution was a radical and dangerous break with tradition, a threat to the established order of society, and a manipulation of the masses.
• His opinions of the Revolution resonated particularly with monarchies that wanted to retain traditional authority.

During his reign, Napoleon imposed a variety of enduring domestic reforms in France

• He increased civic literacy, restored the Catholic Church, and implemented the Napoleonic Code
• To retain authority, he also relied on censorship and a secret police force to suppress opposition, consequently infringing upon the rights and freedoms of French citizens.
• Napoleon spread revolutionary concepts across Europe by imposing widespread French control 
• He upset Europe's balance of power, which provoked a nationalistic response to restore Europe's traditional conservative order.
• The Congress of Vienna worked to “undo” what the French Revolution and Napoleon accomplished by bringing Europe back to a balance of power from before Napoleon's conquests.

Romanticism marked a return to nature and the rejection of societal norms

• It was developed alongside the Enlightenment but in opposition to its strict rationality and the suppression of emotion in favor of reason.
• Romantic philosophers and artists rejected the Enlightenment's focus on reason and science, instead celebrating the emotional, intuitive, and spiritual aspects of human experience.