Time Period 2

 The principal form of political organization across Europe was in the process of becoming a sovereign nation-state. A balance of power was maintained through diplomacy (meaning no one empire/country could dominate) 

Absolute monarchy a form of government in which all power rested in the hands of a single monarch, who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God. 

• Influenced by the Divine Right of Kings, which stated that rulers should have political & religious authority above anything else

The rise of absolute monarchs brought the king’s overreaching power over the state threatened the church as well as nobility 

• The Prince written by Niccolo Machiavelli called for a strong minded ruler that was able to keep power at all costs and willing to remove all noble influence and threats 

A few states gradually developed governments in which the authority of the executive was restricted by legislative bodies protecting the interests of the landowning and commercial classes, this was known as a Constitutional monarchy.

Causes:

The English civil war was conflict between king, parliament, and the English elite (officials of church), over roles in political system. [Absolute monarchy vs constitutional monarchy]

• Charles I – believed in Divine right, did whatever he wanted, Parliament had a problem with this cause he would break law set by constitution, causes tension between parliament and King
• King James I and his successor king Charles, both put England in debt by spending money that wasn’t authorized by parliament during war and caused tensions between parliament and king

The Anglican Church was established by Henry IIIV in defiance of the Catholic church because he wanted a divorce that was not approved by the Pope.

• It was still very catholic in its form, until the Puritans called for the removal of Catholicism from the church

Consequences:

England became a true republic called the Protectorate under lord protector Oliver Cromwell  

England became a military dictatorship ruled by Cromwell and his army.

• After Cromwell's death in 1658, the Protectorate fell apart and parliament gave the throne to Charles II 
• After Charles died, James II assumed the throne, but he kept appointing Catholics, renewing peoples fears of a plot to restore Catholicism in England 
• English Protestants offered the throne to James’ daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange and they were crowned in 1689 after James fled the country. Ending the idea of the Divine Right of Kings

The English Bill of Rights limited the power of the monarchy and protected the power of parliament. It also stated that only parliament had the right to raise taxes and king couldn't annul laws passed by parliament

Before the Agricultural Revolution the two & three field system used only provided enough crops to survive. The British & Dutch tripled food production by abandoning the three field system and replacing it with the four-field crop rotation in which they could rotate crops that deplete soil and with ones that restore nutrients back to soil, this greatly increased food output which in turn increased population. 

Increased populations along with fewer people needed for farming led to the rise of cottage industry. It was based on merchant capitalists giving raw materials to rural workers who manufactured those materials into finished goods. The merchant would then pay the worker and sell the finished goods on the market . This allowed workers to specialize in their trade and led to competition with guild workers 

• The development of the market economy led to new financial practices and institutions like insurance which gave entrepreneurs confidence to invest large amounts of money in factories and goods 

Specialty banks arose which kept only some of the money deposited and loaned the rest out as venture capital to be paid back with interest 

Continuity:

The economic ideal of mercantilism made nations want to maintain a favorable balance of trade, meaning the export more than they import. Colonies were a vital part of the mercantile system. They provided new markets in which nations could sell goods in addition to resources and raw materials. The increased trade led to development of consumer culture 

Demand for luxury goods led to establishment of large-scale plantations driven by enslaved Africans. The Triangular Trade was  system of transatlantic trade routes involving exchange of goods between Europe, Africa, and the Americas

Change:

Growth of Market economy in which production and prices are determined strictly by competition between privately owned businesses. This began to replace mercantilism, in which the state set prices and determined production.

There was an increasing demand of manufactured goods which led to establishment of factories, such as the British wool industry.

The Netherlands is a small, low-lying country located at the crossroads of Europe, this gave it a unique advantage as a trading and transportation hub. The Dutch had a strong navy, and they were able to control the shipping routes through the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, which allowed them to establish a lucrative trade network that stretched across Europe and beyond.

The Netherlands was a republic, and this meant that the government was not controlled by a single ruler or ruling family. Instead, the country was divided into a number of independent provinces, each with its own government and laws. This system allowed for a great degree of freedom and democracy, and it contributed to the country's prosperity.

Calvinism became the dominant religion. Religious tolerance and freedom of religion for Catholics, Lutherans, Anabaptists and Jews helped the Dutch avoid the internal religious conflicts of other European nations and contributed to commercial economic growth.

The dominance of shipbuilding and its massive fleet, the Dutch formed the Dutch East India Trading Company, which displaced the Portuguese in control of the East India spice trade and proved to be stiff competition for the British East India Company. 

Religion was replaced as the center of military and diplomatic objectives by balance of power. Balance of power asserted that nations could secure their own security by preventing any one state from gaining too much power.

Establishing strong armies and maintaining power through war was common – armies were built "for defensive purposes”, but were often used for offensive reasons to gain power.

• Battle of Vienna (1683) – the Ottomans wanted to control more of eastern Europe, so they tried to invade Austria (Habsburg Empire) to secure better trade routes. Habsburgs, Poland, and the Holy Roman Empire united to stop invasion/keep balance of power, they were successful and after Ottomans stopped expansion further into eastern Europe
• Louis XIV waging many wars to expand France (Ex: The Dutch War, Nine Years War, the War of Spanish Succession)

Diplomacy is the establishment of agreements that maintain balance of power and avoid war. Rulers would come upon agreements to secure power and land for their airs

• Partition of Poland – granted half of Poland territory to be divided among Prussia, Russia, and Austria Poland was so weak they basically had to give their land to these powers, over next 25-year agreements were made among 3 powers that resulted in all of Poland being divided between them
• The treaty of Utrecht (1713) – ending the Spanish war of succession and decided that Philip V stayed on Spanish throne and France and Spain would remain separate, maintain balance of power

The Military Revolution saw new forms of warfare, more reliance on infantry, firearms, mobile cannon, and more elaborate fortifications. This was financed by heavier taxation, requiring a larger bureaucracy which led to furthered rise of consolidated nation-states. Balance of power tipped to states that had sufficient resources for a strong military 

• Sweden - King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden implemented changes to the Swedish military and government that made it very powerful and modern. The creation of a standing, professional army, the establishment of a centralized command structure, the use of mobile artillery
•  Spain - The Habsburgs also introduced a new type of infantry, the tercio, which was composed of Pikemen, musketeers, and arquebusiers. Helped give Spain military success.

Social:

The development of absolutism brought about the divine right of kings, kings thought that they are an extension of god and because of that they can do whatever they wanted.

Absolute monarchs kept aristocrats social standing

Political:

Absolute monarchs limited power nobles had in government

• Louis XIV of France was the biggest monarch of this time period, he used intendants – bureaucratic agents – to uphold laws he passed, undermining local government
  • Bureaucracies – handled administration of the state instead of nobility answerable directed to the king

Monarchs took power away from church and redirected it to them

• Peter got rid of the role of Patriarch, the Pope in Russian Orthodox Church, and replaced it with Holy Synod and filled it with people who were loyal to him and his ideals

Absolutism: the process by which political power was transferred away from the nobility and church and toward the monarch

•  Louis the XIV of France “I am the state” with the intendant system, bureaucracies, palace of Versailles, revoked edict of Nantes
• Divine Right of Kings – kings are direct extension of god so they can do whatever they wanted (ex of believers: James I of England, Louis XIV of France, Charles the I of England)

Huge merchant class resulted from increased global trade and merchants like stability of absolutist states, gained power from nobles because they boosted economy for states

• Mercantilism – nations wealth would increase if more exports than imports

Constitutionalism:

Monarchs were limited by constitution and laws so that they didn’t control the whole state

• - ex: England

Laws are created and passed by a parliament not monarch

• English bill of rights